To me this item on Quora https://www.quora.com/Is-the-claim-that-the-ancient-Egyptians-were-black-had-dark-skin-supported-by-history-If-not-what-race-were-they-and-how-do-we-know is very useful for informing an opinion on the matter. I saw no way to timestamp the link but I had originally written these articles for family and close friends and that did not matte at the time. I have used several other online sources like those below in order to form my conclusions:

• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hyksos-Egyptian-dynasty
• https://quatr.us/egypt/persians-rule-egypt.htm

This subject is being dealt with as a component of my series on The Princes, the Priests and the Prophets hence the preface of PPP. The link here is provided to connect with the main article.

Dishonesty

The typical answer that I saw in scholarship was that you could not tell anything of the colour of ancient Egyptians. I wanted to see for myself so I looked them up. In this essay I have put the names of pharaohs for whom I have images in bold. The Egyptians were the people that Jacobs family sought refuge with during the famine in Canaan. Those Egyptians were Hamitic out of Mizraim (Psalms 105:23, 27; Psalm 166:22) and as far as I can tell, black by today's standards. You can check anywhere for an image the king of the 1 ^st Dynasty of Egypt ( Menes or Narmer ) and see that the image below is what he looked like. You can also examine the nose on the Narmer palette on wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmer . Note his aquiline nose; oh how Arabic or European[!]. It is interesting that Abraham sought refuge in Egypt but people claim the Egyptians are Arabic even though Abraham was the father of Ishmael (Gen. 16:16) and Ketura's children (Genesis 25:1-4). Others try to make them Persian or European. Nowadays Narmer has been transformed into the image below the first. To say that ancient Egyptians were black is now considered a hypothesis even though all early historians record them as black. You can check this article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Egyptian_hypothesis . Colour and race as one item, has become a tool for power.

This is not new information. Manetho was an Egyptian priest quoted by Josephus, who wrote the Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt), a chronological record of the reigns of the ancient pharaohs which is still in use today. He lived during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246) BC and recorded his history up to then. It is believed that just before the unification of Egypt, it existed as two kingdoms: Upper Egypt and lower Egypt. The unification lead to the double crown (shown below). Upper Egypt was the most powerful part and was the southern part closer to Nubia. Lower Egypt was the northern part. You can read more on that here and it is where the image of the crown came from. You can find a record of the dynasties here https://discoveringegypt.com/ancient-egyptian-kings-queens/egyptian-old-kingdom-dynasties/ and Egyptologists have worked it out to be from 3,100 BC, close enough to Babel. Remember that the Bible does not say that Nimrod ruled the world just that the people were of one mind, implying one religion, the same as Nimrods. The ancient Egyptians listed their kings (usurpers of God's throne) sequentially beginning with the reign of their sun god Ra, who was their first king on Earth. Modern scholars have divided Manetho's thirty dynasties into five Kingdoms. A dynasty is a series of rulers belonging to the same family. All but the first two are separated by an intermediated period of time so that it looks like this:

When I wrote this piece I did not find this link to The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City , colloquially the Met , but it gives another breakdown of the reigns. You can see that there is no precise agreement on the dates.

I cannot vouch for the exact colour of these people but I know that they were originally Hamitic and remained so up to the Persians. The link that I put above from quora establishes the ethnicity of Egypt by quoting ancient European sources like Herodotus. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop shows the work of Cheikh Anta Diop and is a must read. Others have used DNA and still others Etymology (the study of the history of words) with comparative linguistics. As I understand it these tests for ethnicity all have merit but none are absolute. What is striking about DNA in general is that God knew that only men can pass on the Y-chromosome and traced families by it from Adam. Women have two X-chromosomes while men have one X and one Y. Another reason why homosexuality is foolishness.

I am going to rely largely on images but there is a far more diverse approach presented by Without History, a project in episodes on YouTube. Episode 12 has a part called  Ep 12. Recent Genetic Studies on Ancient Egyptians Finally Show That They Were ... Premiered Dec 19, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BQpsdxgpg4k&t=20s that focuses on Egyptians. The image of the black man to the right of the crowns is from the Internet. Considering nose, mouth etc. if you could not see his hair and skin colour would you know for sure that he was black? I am sure that when you think about it you will remember seeing several black men that look just like him. The impression given is that all Hamitic people have ridiculously thick thick lips and broad noses. The Egyptians did have thick lips and broad noses anyway.

psychological warfare

I have here a picture done in the 19^th century that has been preserved as representing the social environment at the time of Pharaoh Seti I. What did the artist portray? Why did he not use the same colour for all? What evidence did he go on or was it just the way that his mind was trained? Wikipedia has reproduced the image but with the following disclaimer:

Depicting (from left): a Berber (Libyan), a Nubian, an Asiatic (Levantine), and an Egyptian. Drawing by an unknown artist after a mural of the tomb of Seti I; Copy by Heinrich von Minutoli (1820). Note that the skin shades are due to the 19th century illustrator, not the Ancient Egyptian original.

The fact is that we know what Seti I looked like. He fits perfectly into the others of his time and there is no reason to expect that there was a very great difference between him and his neighbours. Menmaatre Seti I was the second pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the New Kingdom period. He was the son of Ramesses I and Sitre, and the father of Ramesses II. We will see Ramasses II and others of his time later.

Biassed dates

Now before we go any further let me make a disclaimer about the dates in Egyptian history and those accepted by some Creation Scientists. I really don't align myself with either group but I look for evidence where I find it and I have my own views based on the Bible here. You may want to watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FF0F8YjT1og&t=649s and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VI1yRTC6kGE. You may also find this one on dinosaurs interesting https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mEJENaCgq70. According to creation scientists the great flood occurred about 2,350 BC. According to Egyptologists the great pyramids were built around 2,550 BC. I will just leave them. Note this however, some scientists believe that Egyptian history is incorrectly dated and should be moved forward by about 200 years in order to be accurate. I think it worth repeating that an award winning documentary called Patterns of Evidence substantiates this. But this does not completely solve the problem. There are still inaccuracies adopted by creation scientists who have misrepresented the Biblical authority. For example the original text of the Bible says that the Israelites were in Egypt AND Canaan 430 years (Exodus 12:40). Some creation scientist perpetuate a mistranslation from the Masoretic text from which the KJV Old Testament was translated. It leads to a claim that Shem outlived Terah and knew Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and also lets them feel comfortable in their theory that Christ will come soon after the end of 6,000 years. The Bible says that nobody knows the date but we can sense the atmosphere of when it is imminent. People who accept these authorities without examining the evidence, also reject that the flood occurred about 3,000 BC (i.e. Christ was born about 3,000 years after the flood, my chronology gets quite close ) because that would push us past their 6,000 year mark for Christ's return. If the flood occurred 3,000 years BC it puts us in no-man's-land since the 14^th century, with an outer limit of the 24^th century AD, and some people cannot accept that because it puts us into the 7^th millennium. All of the above videos challenge us to prove all things, hold fast that which is good (1 Thessalonians 5:21).

The root of the problem

As I see it the root of the problem is the same that exists globally with subjugated races today and that includes Jews. As the people are conquered the conquering class installs people who look as close to them as possible the top of the society. I see in as a corruption of what God does. He installs a layer that looks like Him spiritually!! He shows no interest in physical appearance. They want people to look like them physically and their character is irrelevant. This layer begins to represent who is desirable in the society and the whole nation aspires to that. interbreeding with them is seen as social advancement since their offspring get better jobs, more perks etc. In Judea we see it with the Sadducees, who came out of the Maccabees but became Hellenized. This is what happened in Egypt, not so much by the Persians but by the Greeks and Romans. They saw themselves as superior in every way and entrenched it in the society for centuries. Why do they do it? I hope to cover this in greater detail at another time but it is because the dominant class wants to justify its privileged abuse of others. It has to discredit anything that opposes that view. It is very difficult to resist that brainwashing. I hope to demonstrate that as we proceed.

Why this is important for Christians

It is important because we cannot be party to the abuse. We cannot be linked with the lies and murder that is a part of this.

Christians must be righteous. Egypt is in the roots of every Christian and every Jew. Abraham was sustained there (Genesis 12:10), Israel was sustained there (Genesis 46:1-6) and Christ was protected there (Matthew 2:13-23) from these very elites. The story of the Massacre of the innocents by Herod shows what they are capable of. Egypt was an African society that became Hellenized and we feel the effects down to today. Christians cannot allow ourselves to be Hellenized. They will do the same thing to our church groups and shift our focus from the God that loves the world to their god that exalts them in his world based on elitism.

The Archaic Period

The Archaic Period begins with Narmer/Menes (shown at the beginning in portrait and profile) who started the First Dynasty (3,100 2,686 BC). The dynasty contains: Narmer , Aha, Djer, Djet, Den , Anedjib, Semerkhet and Qaa. You cannot miss the nose on pharaoh Den on the right which came from Wikipedia. It is the same nose that we we see on the Narmer palette. The dynasty is believed to have ended with a political dispute over the throne evidenced by the opposing gods Horus and Seth. Seth was one of Adam and Eve's two surviving sons, the other being Cain. Noah is traced through Seth while Cain was the rebel. This dichotomy might have continued after the flood with Nimrod following Cain and Shem following Seth (Set) and may be represented in the Gods of Egypt.

Nowadays Jews have Moses, others have their sages.

Second Dynasty

The Second Dynasty (2,890-2,686 BC), same race, no invasion, seems to have represented a unification or compromise but later pharaohs sometimes chose one god over the other. That dynasty has: Hetepsekhemwy, Raneb, Nynetjer (leftmost), Peribsen and Khasekhem a.k.a Khasekhemwy (the middle) . The names and sequence of the first three rulers are inscribed on the back of a statue of a priest called Hotep-dif whose image is on the right. Note the hair .

The Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom begins with the Third Dynasty.

Third Dynasty

Third Dynasty (2,686 - 2,613 BC) - Sanakht, Djoser , Sekhemkhet and Huni - was started by Sanakht who we see first on the right, and it is here that we first see the pyramids. Wikipedia has a relief showing him and I have magnified the area with his face to show his European or Arabic features[!]. Compare it to pharaoh Den above. Djoser is to the right of Sanakht. Check out the nose and mouth. Imhotep (below the kings) was vizier of king Djoser but also physician, architect, wise man and scribe, the high priest and astronomer during his lifetime. Pretty much a genius. Compare Djoser to a sphinx.

Fourth Dynasty

Political conditions rose to a peak in the Fourth dynasty (2,613 to 2,494 BC) marked by the the Giza pyramids. The pharaohs were Sneferu, Khufu , Radjedef, Khafre , Menkaura and Shepseskaf . Sneferu built the first pyramid but his son Khufu (Greek: Cheops) shown first from the left, is famous for the Great Pyramid. Sneferu is on Wikipedia but the image is blurred.

Khafre (khafra) is shown next and you can see the family resemblance in the nose. Menkaura (Menkaure) is next followed by his wife with the poofy hair to his right. We see that hair again later on Khedebneithirbinet I. The last is Shepseskaf who seals it for me. Check the acquiline nose[!] When the family is seen together there is no doubt about ethnicity. You can look for the colossus of Menkaura which more clearly shows his hamitic similarities with Shepseskaf. Prince Rahotep, brother of Khufu is on the far right with the chain around his neck.

Based on the dates offered here and my internal calculations of the Bible record, I would have to put Abraham around this time .

Fifth Dynasty

The Fifth Dynasty (2,494 – 2,345 BC) features Userkaf, Sahure, Neferirkare Kakai (with the curly hair), Neferefre, Shepseskare, Nyuserre Ini, Menkauhor Kaiu, Djedkare Isesi, Unas

Based on the dates offered here and my internal calculations of the Bible record, I would have to put Joseph around this time .

Sixth Dynasty

Sixth Dynasty has Teti (who was assasinated), Userkare, Pepi I, Merenre I, Pepi II , Merenre II, Nitocris.

Seventh to Tenth Dynasties

I found no images for the seventh to the tenth dynasties. Remember that dynasty is synonymous with family. By the Ninth & Tenth Dynasties (2,160-2,025 BC) Egypt split into north and south again. The north was ruled from Herakleopolis and the south from Thebes. The First Intermediate Period begins with Dynasty 8 and ends with the start of the Middle Kingdom.

Middle Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom (2,055-1,650 BC) is possibly the time of Abraham. It starts with the Eleventh Dynasty (2,125-1,985 BC) : Intef I, Intef II, Intef III, Mentuhotep I, Mentuhotep II and Mentuhotep III. History has preserved an image of Mentuhotep II who was the penultimate ruler of the dynasty. We see him here taken from the Met webpage https://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544008 . Once again notice the typical European and Arabic characteristics[!].

Joseph and Abraham

Mainline contemporary scholarship and some interpretations of the Bible's own chronology agree in dating Joseph sometime between 2,000 and 1,600 BC, which is the time of the Twelfth Dynasty. My own calculations of the internal chronology of the Bible do not agree with these dates, however I cannot contradict that this is the time of Joseph because I cannot confirm the dates of the Egyptian dynasties. My skepticism is grounded in the work of people like David Rohl which is condensed in the film Patterns of Evidence , a 2014 documentary film directed by Tim Mahoney. This work is referenced by the Youtube clip How long were the Israelites in Egypt , https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FF0F8YjT1og , a video by NathanH83. You would notice that earlier, in identifying Egyptian periods for Abraham and Joseph I used the disclaimer based on the dates offered here .

1 Kings 6:1 says In the four hundred and eightieth year after the Israelites had come out of the land of Egypt, in the month of Ziv, the second month of the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, he began to build the house of the LORD , which dates the Exodus 480 years before the fourth year of Solomon if we use that number without context. This is generally accepted to be 966 BC and places the Exodus at around 1,445 BC. If they were in Egypt for 215 years then that puts Joseph at around 1660 BC. The problem is that in 1 Kings God is talking only about 480 years when Israel was His.

Exodus 12:40 in KJV states, Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years , and that is where the problems really begin. I am saying that they spent 215 years in Egypt but you will have to watch the Youtube videos above for more details.

Exodus 6:4 and Galatians 3:16-17 are used to substantiate the claim that the Lord made a covenant with Abraham 430 years before the Exodus. Not long after then, Abraham travelled to Egypt to escape the famine in the land of Canaan (Genesis 12:10). There are not 430 years between Abraham and Joseph. According to the Biblical genealogy that is undeniably proven on my webpage on Biblical chronology, Abram left Haran around 1,017 years after the flood and Jacob came to Egypt around 1,232 years after the flood which is 215 years. In spite of this both Abraham and Joseph sometimes find themselves placed during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt 2,055 1,650 BC. It starts with the Eleventh Dynasty (2,125 - 1,985 BC). It would appear that Abraham went there at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, maybe during the Eleventh Dynasty, and Joseph was there during the Thirteenth Dynasty. I am not at all claiming that it is not true, but that because of the problems with Egyptian chronology I could not endorse or validate the claim. Some speculate that Joseph and Vizier Ankhu are one and the same. Ankhu was an Egyptian vizier who lived in the 13 ^th Dynasty around 1,750 BC during the reigns of Khendjer, Sobekhotep II and others of the 13 ^th Dynasty. We will have a brief look at that shortly. The image is from the website https://www.bibleandscience.com/store/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=885 and indicates that he retained his love for colourful coats .

Dating Joseph

One of the proposed ways of dating Joseph is the seven years of plenty. The Egyptians learned a method of measuring the height of the Nile known as the Nilometre. It was generally a set of precisely measured steps. They were calibrated using the cubit as the unit of measurement. Egyptians broke the cubit into smaller units, which allowed them to keep very accurate records of the Nile. These records were used for the purposes of agriculture and taxation.

Egypt was called the gift of the Nile. Every year the Nile flooded during which time the inundated farmland could not be cultivated. As the water receded it left a new layer of rich silt that needed very little preparation for cultivation. In years when the Nile flooded higher there was more land to cultivate. It would seem that if we could obtain records showing the rise of the Nile then we could deduce the cause of the seven years of plenty and the seven years of famine, but it does not appear that such records exist. Rohl extrapolated from available records but some claim that he is too ambitious with his findings. While this might show the seven years of plenty it could not identify the famine, because that was a global problem according to the Bible, not something isolated to the region of Egypt.

Working backwards from Nile flooding to Adam

Assuming that the approach of Rohl has merit then can we work backwards from Nile flooding to the Flood and to Adam and Eve? The Nile floods because of what happens in Ethiopia, not Canaan. Ethiopia could not account for the famine in Canaan, where Jacob lived. Some scientists believe that the famine was actually caused indirectly by the flood. The geology of the world was unstable in the years following the flood for some time. This lead to an ice age. An Ice age does not require the whole earth to be buried in snow. According to wikipedia at the time I prepared this essay, An ice age is a long period of reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and Alpine glaciers . This is one of those areas where Answers in Genesis appears to have got it right on their webpage at https://answersingenesis.org/environmental-science/ice-age/genesis-flood-caused-the-ice-age/ . If you believe that there was no flood and things have always been as they are (uniformitarianism) then it leads the imagination to dream up these slow processes over billions of years, but if we accept that there was a catastrophe (catastrophism) then there is a reasonable explanation of the ice age. Answers in Genesis proposes two underlying requirements (1) cooler summers (2) heavy snow. As they put it

the Flood and its aftershocks provide the volcanic dust and gases that precipitate the summer cooling indispensable for the Ice Age. Water from the fountains of the great deep and mixing during the Flood provides a warm ocean. In the mid and high latitudes the warm ocean would cause copious evaporation and produce massive amounts of snow. The two ingredients required for an Ice Age, cool temperatures and tons of snow, were dramatically fulfilled immediately after the Genesis flood. This unique climate would persist for hundreds of years after the Flood as the intensity of the two mechanisms slowly decreased.

These conditions would make much of the world (the high and mid latitudes) inhospitable and drive people towards areas like the fertile crescent (Mesopotamia and Egypt). Warmer seas and large bodies of water would retain heat from volcanic activity more than air would, making coastal areas more habitable, but the high aquatic temperatures would also generate copious evaporation leading to greater cloud cover and hence blocking out the sun and cooling the earth further. This would continue until equilibrium was reached hundreds of years later. The Famine Stela located on Sehel Island in the Nile tells of a seven-year famine during the reign of pharaoh Djoser of the Third Dynasty. This was before Abraham. Abraham also went to Egypt fleeing a famine.

The underlying cause could have been the same thing being repeated in cycles and in my opinion would have been the cause of the disappearance of the dinosaurs. All dinosaurs are reptiles. Dinosaurs on land would go first as the severe temperatures destroyed their food sources and also make it hard for cold blooded creatures to function. Those dinosaurs living in water would enjoy the benefit of the warmer waters for some time to come. When conditions reached the severity of the time of Joseph and Abraham I find it hard to see how any of them could survive. Smaller creatures could find shelter readily enough but where would you put a dinosaur?

My evidence for these catastrophic conditions lies in the fact that all of the land creatures around the world were brought back by Noah. That being the case, the severe volcanic conditions and tectonic stresses that lead to the separation of the continents, had to have taken place some time after the flood or else the land creatures from the ark could not reach places separated by oceans. The image here shows Pangea, a supercontinent that could have existed at the time (note this concept of Pangea separates Eden from Ethiopia). The youtube video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5q8hzF9VVE by Mike Sammartano explains the evidence for it. Alfred Wegener (pronounced vegner) invented the theory but it is amazing that with such a brilliant mind never associated it with the flood and prevailing geologic conditions. An offshoot from Pangea theory is the expanded Earth theory or expanding Earth theory. It is shown graphically here https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJfBSc6e7QQ , just ignore the nonsense about 200 million years. It is based on the theory that the globe of the earth was once smaller and completely covered by land (except for some rivers of course). As a mater of fact some say it was about ¼ of its present size. That would make gravity significantly greater, since for a sphere, the force of gravity on the surface is inversely proportional to the radius squared but I do not know what that would demand from the environment.

Notice that in verse 13 one of the rivers passed through Ethiopia. Moses obviously got his information through Noah. There are two options that I see. (1) Noah recognised the area because it looked like before. (2) Based on the stars Noah identified where he was. In any case Noah indicates that the land was same-ish but with notable exceptions. There is no way that water could flow from Mesopotamia up to Ethiopia today. The Bible says that at first the source of the river going to Ethiopia was Eden. Nowadays the source of the Nile in Egypt is Ethiopia, so the current is reversed. Noah knew that the Euphrates was the same river as before but he could not find the other three. This suggests to me that major changes during the flood altered the entire geology and it would take time for the earth and its atmosphere to adjust. Some commentators claim alternative interpretations of Genesis 2, but as it stands now the common source of all the rivers had to be the same as the Euphrates, which is in Eastern Turkey in the general area of Mt. Ararat.

Another theory about the condition of the world following the flood is that there were thick polar ice caps which caused much more dry land than now and so the animals could walk from continent to continent. I think that under those conditions Noah would have been forced to do what Joseph and Abraham did viz. head to Egypt. The same conditions that would create the thick ice cap would also cause rivers to dry up and make it hard to survive. It conjures up visions of Noah and the animals leaving the ark in snow and unable to find food. My other concern with this theory is that while it explains the animals it does not explain how similar vegetation and geologic conditions seem to continue across continents separated by vast oceans.

While there is evidence of larger animals before the flood e.g Meganeura (enormous dragonflies) and Titanomyrma (huge ants), I could not find evidence of larger trees. As a tree grows taller and taller it becomes harder and harder to deliver water to its highest branches because it is fighting against the pull of gravity. At some point the tree expends more energy pulling the water up than the leaves can generate at that height. At that point the tree can grow no taller. If gravity is less trees should be taller. There are theories that some of the mesas are actually stumps of prehistoric trees but the evidence is iffy. The waters of the oceans would have come from somewhere as the continents broke apart but remember that the earth was made from water (Genesis 1:2) and so you could get water back as a by-product.

It is estimated that 90% of the visible universe is composed of hydrogen and it is everywhere on earth in various compounds. Oxygen, the other component of water, is also extremely plentiful. To produce pure water, you can burn hydrogen in the presence of pure oxygen. Forgetting the hocus pocus that is also associated with these theories they are actually Biblically sound. H2O can be made from any source of Hydrogen and Oxygen existing under the surface of a planet. Under the pressure of the steam it would erupt into water volcanoes. I do not know how God did it but the resources are there.

As God created conditions for run-off the original surface fractured by volcanoes could have broken apart, settling down over the first centuries until it reached some equilibrium. It is not surprising then that the people looked for stable land and were so afraid of the weather that idolatry became a part of their daily lives. The Children of Israel faced only one such cataclysm and that was when God spoke to them on the mount. The book of Exodus records the golden calf as having been spawned by that experience. To me expanded Earth theory explains all of the factors that lead to the present conditions on the Earth better than any alternative. Whichever method I use to conceive of the people before the flood I come to the conclusion that Adam and Eve were not white and they were perfect but men have used race to divide and control. God shows us that the first time that Adam and Eve considered wearing clothes was when they sewed together fig leaves (Genesis 3:7) and it was to conceal their bodies not protect them from the elements. Their bodies had to be able to adapt very well to the fluctuations in temperature from the warmest to the coolest times of any given year meaning that they were able to change colour effortlessly. The other thing that seems obvious to me is that the variations in temperature were modest and that the climate was warm. Warm weather means more melanin. And they heard the voice of the LORD God walking in the garden in the cool of the day: and Adam and his wife hid themselves from the presence of the LORD God amongst the trees of the garden , Genesis 3:8 (KJV). The word translated as cool actually means breeze . I cannot imagine God putting people without any clothes and shelter in an environment that gets breezy if the wind chill factor makes them uncomfortable. In my opinion the evidence is that the climate was tropical but Arrat is now at the edge of the Temperate zone. The modern practise to insist that dark skinned people are an affront to God is evil and makes God appear to have been so simple that He could not make what he really wanted, but depended on evolution to perfect it for Him.

A clear path

Both Abraham and Joseph experienced serious famine which indicates that it was a cyclical problem. Using Rohl's method does provide a clear path back to Adam and Eve. Secondly, placing Joseph in the eleventh dynasty is not without merit. On the other hand, we will soon see that the Thirteenth Dynasty might be a better alternative.

Twelfth Dynasty

The Twelth dynasty fearures Sesostris I (Senusret I) first on right and Sesostris II (Khakheperre Senusret II) who is second on the right. The dynasty was started by Amenemhat I (1991 - 1962 BC). He died by assassination but had already made his son Sesostris I (Senusret I) co-regent with him. Sesostris (1971 - 1928 BC) campaigned with some success in northern Nubia but under his immediate successors fighting subsided and trade became the focus of attention. Egypt was now the greatest nation in the world, long before the Hittite empire (about 1600 BC to 1178 BC) or Hammurabi (1792 BC to 1750 BC) the sixth king of the first Babylonian dynasty, both empires also being Hamitic.

Thirteenth Dynasty

This brings us to the time of Joseph. Below we have pharaohs from the Thirteenth Dynasty (original egyptians: Wegaf, Intef IV, Hor, Sobekhotep I a.k.a Sobekhotep II, Khendjer, Sobekhotep III, Neferhotep I, Sobekhotep IV, Ay and Neferhotep II). It actually has over fifty pharaohs associated with it but these are considered certainties. The names in bold correspond with images from left to right. During this dynasty Canaanite people migrated into Egypt and founded the Fourteenth Dynasty (it Lasted for around 57 years) which coexisted with the Thirteenth Dynasty and controlled only the Nile Delta, but little is known of them. Nehesy Aasehre (Nehesi) is one of their Kings but the artefacts attributed to him are from a Hyskos with the same name.

On the left of the second row is royal sealer and high steward Gebu of the same dynasty. History claims that during that time successive waves of desert nomads (the Hyksos) invaded Egypt giving rise to the Second Intermediate Period (1650 - 1550 BC) and created the Fifteenth Dynasty (see map below). They remained as rulers of Egypt for about a century or two and brought technological advancement according to Encyclopaedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hyksos-Egyptian-dynasty. Little is accepted as absolute concerning them as is attested by Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksos at the time of this essay. Some claim that Hyksos kings controlled certain Egyptian Cities from the 13^th Dynasty, thru to the 17^th Dynasty. As usual the truth is probably somewhere in the middle. If Egypt was being ruled from the south while Joseph resided in the north as prime minister, then it easily applies to Israel. For sure native Egyptian Kings ruled in Upper (southern) Egypt. Hyksos is given the meaning of king shepherd by Manetho. The first exodus recorded by Manetho concerns 480,000 Hyksos shepherd kings that left Egypt for Jerusalem. The second speaks of 80,000 lepers lead into rebellion by a renegade Egyptian priest called Osarseph. History also supports the first Hyksos not conquering Egypt violently but peacefully. In recent years the idea of a simple Hyksos migration has gained popularity. Supporters claim there is little evidence of battles or wars in general in this period. The first Hyskos are associated with the Israelites (and hence Joseph) by Josephus. If the Hyskos are Israellites then we know that it was famine that drove the people of Canaan into Egypt. Under those conditions it is reasonable to assume that there was some mixing with the people of Palestine (Leviticus 24:10) including at the very top with Joseph. Israel spent 215 years in Egypt and Estimates of the Hyksos Dynasty range from about 110 to almost 200 years. The Sixteenth Dynasty ruled in Upper Egypt while the Hyksos (Fifteenth Dynasty) were in Lower Egypt. Guess what the Hyksos looked like? The head next to royal sealer and high steward Gebu is Apepi (Greek Apophis) the Hyksos King. There is an article on the Tour Egypt website called Manetho on the Hyskos, http://www.touregypt.net/manethohyksos.htm. It gives far more detail than I can provide here. It includes this from Flavius Josephus: Against Apion, Book 1, section 73:

"These people, whom we have called kings before, and shepherds too, and their descendants," as he [5] says, "held Egypt for five hundred and eleven years. Then," he says, "the kings of Thebes and the other parts of Egypt rose against the shepherds, and a long and terrible war was fought between them." He says further, "By a king, named Alisphragmuthosis [6], the shepherds were subdued, and were driven out of the most parts of Egypt and shut up in a place named Avaris, measuring ten thousand acres." Manetho says, "The shepherds had built a wall surrounding this city, which was large and strong, in order to keep all their possessions and plunder in a place of strength.

Tethmosis [7], son of Alisphragmuthosis, attempted to take the city by force and by siege with four hundred and eighty thousand men surrounding it. But he despaired of taking the place by siege, and concluded a treaty with them, that they should leave Egypt, and go, without any harm coming to them, wherever they wished. After the conclusion of the treaty they left with their families and chattels, not fewer than two hundred and forty thousand people, and crossed the desert into Syria. Fearing the Assyrians, who dominated over Asia at that time, they built a city in the country which we now call Judea. It was large enough to contain this great number of men and was called Jerusalem.

I have seen it recorded that scholars claim that Josephus says that Manetho presents an accurate account, but I have never seen supporting documentation. I would find it interesting to know how scholars disregard an account that was recorded at the time of the event in favour of something that was codified 1,000 years after the event by Manetho. In my opinion the embarrassment of the plagues lead to the distorted account passed down orally by the Egyptians. Apion was a Hellenized Egyptian philosopher. About 38 AD, the inhabitants of Alexandria (European city in Egypt started by Alexander the Great) sent an embassy which raised complaints against the Jews residing in their city, to emperor Caligula. They made Apion the head, because he was a skilful speaker that hated Jews. Josephus defended the Jews and hence would have been particularly careful not to discredit himself. You can find some extracts from Manetho and Josephus on this site http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Misc/Hyksos/Hyksos.htm

Seventeenth Dynasty

The middle kingdom ended with the Seventeenth Dynasty which succeded the Sixteenth Dynasty in the south (Upper Egypt). They too ruled from Thebes when Hyksos controlled Lower Egypt and contains Rahotep, Sobekemsaf I, Sobekemsaf II, Intef V (Vsekhemre-wepmaat), Intef VI (Nubkheperre), Intef VII (Sekhemre-heruhermaat), Ahmose (Senakhtenre), Tao (Seqenenre) and Kamose (Wadjkheperre). The images show sekhemre-wepmaat ( a.k.a intef V) on the left and Nubkheperre (a.k.a Intef VI) his brother and successor next and finally Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef, referred to as Intef VII or Intef VIII, was a successor to Nubkheperre.

The New Kingdom dynasties

Eighteenth Dynasty

The New Kingdom dysnaties (1,550 - 1,069 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty (1,550 - 1,295 BC.) Which contains: Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Hatshepsut, Amenhotep II, Thutmose IV, Amenhotep III, Amenhotep IV, Akhenaten, Neferneferuaton, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamun, Aya and Haremhab. Some of the faces can pass for European but when you include the ones like Ahmose I and Amenhotep III (first and second second from left) there is no doubt about being hamitic. You cannot hide the afro on Ahmose I! You will often see him with his nose and upper lip disfigured. The preferred images of this time is that of king Tut (Tutankhamun) the gold head and Hatshepsut, who have faces that can be modified to look European.

Hatshepsut is shown in the two heads in the middle row. Tutenkhamun was a boy and not fully matured, but when placed with the rest of the family you can see the clear resemblance. Tutankhamun is the grandson of Amenhotep III whose wife Tiyi is shown on the far right of the top row. Hapsephut is below them. She is from Thebes and it seems that the Thebans i.e. the Intefs, have narrower faces, but they are Hamitic nevertheless. What I am attempting to show is these people are of the same race. They did not go through an invasion just internal political instability. The first invasion occurs is with the Hyskos, Asiatic people who terminated the Thirteenth Dynasty and began the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. Ahmose was the son of Seqenenre Tao from the seventeenth dynasty so they too had to have his genes. Again if you look at Pharaoh Akhenaten (who is a descendant of Hatshepsut) positioned on the left of the bottom row, and his unnamed daughter on his right, then you can see the similarities with Hatshepsut above them. Akhenaten actually had several daughters but I do not know the name of the one here. You can find images of other daughters like Meritaten (shown in two images on the bottom right) and Ankhesenamun but you have to be careful of  paintings because many are Europeanised. The southern kings with capital at Thebes expelled the Hyksos and the Egypt extended its borders into Palestine and Syria, hence further mixing of Egypt, but they were now the dominant force. If the Hyskos are Israelites then this would be the period of the wilderness and the judges.

The Nineteenth Dynasty

The Nineteenth Dynasty (1,295 - 1,186 BC) is biblically linked to the Exodus because it contains the name Rameses.

The rulers are: Rameses I, Seti I (He was shown at the beginning of this essay when speaking of psychological warfare), Rameses II, Merenptah, Amenmessu, Sety II, Saptah and Tausret. There is a bust of Rameses II (the great ancestor) the leftmost head in the box and to the right of that an image comparing him to a modern East African. He reigned during the time of the Hittite Empire and their borders joined in Canaan. He too could easily have been the pharaoh that Israel went into Egypt under but Josephus, a Jew who knew the Bible, claims otherwise. As a matter of fact it would fit right into the Twenty First Dynasty (1,069 - 945 BC) when Smendes proclaimed himself king after the death of Rameses XI, and ruled from Tanis in the Delta. This would have been around the time of Samuel, Saul and David. Before this Egypt would have gone into a slump under the Rameses following the glories of Rameses III who finally defeated the sea peoples for good.

The Twenty-second

In the Twenty-second Dynasty (945 - 715 BC) we have Shoshenq II (Shishak of the Bible) and you can also compare him to the image of the East African as well. Following the death of Solomon of Israel, Shoshenk defeated the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. His dynasty contained: Shoshenk, Osorkon I , Takelot I , Osorkon II , Takelot II , Shoshenk III, Pimay (Pami), Shoshenk V and Osorkon IV. These were Libyans (country to the west of Egypt) so you see what Libyans of that period looked like. I have Osorkon II (left) and Pami (right of him) but the images are of rather poor quality. The Twenty-third Dynasty (818 - 715 BC) overlapped the Twenty Second when another Libyan called Pedubast proclaimed himself king at Leontopolis in the time of Shoshenk III who ruled from Tanis. The Twenty-fourth Dynasty (727 - 715 BC) also overlapped when Kings at Sais (a city in Western Egypt) formed a coalition to counter the Nubians (South of Egypt, Sudan) who had invaded Egypt during this weak period.

The Late Kingdom

Twenty-fifth Dynasty

The designation of intermediate periods was not used by Egyptians but was added by Egyptologists at a later date. I have not found an undisputed and precise definition of what it means. Some consider it a time of confusion and disunity but recent historians have shown that these periods were neither. Some count the Late Period Egyptian Dynasties as 747 to 30 BC, beginning with the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (780 - 656 BC) and ending with Ptolemy XV (Caesarion; 44-30 BC) the last Pharaoh of Egypt. Some say it existed from 664 BC until 332 BC, ending with the conquests of the Persian Empire by Akexander the Great. Some have other variations but however you look at it the Semitic (descendants of Shem) Assyrian line from Babylon, merged with the Hamitic Pharaohs of Egypt, who merged with the Ptolemaic Caesars of Rome and Greece (descendants of japeth) to unify one corrupt system under Rome. The intrigue starts here with the kings of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, comprised of: Alara, Kashta, Piy, Shabako, Shabatka, Taharka and Tantarnani. Taharka is shown above in profile and portrait while Shabako is on the right. The princes of Kush (Nubia - modern Sudan) took over Egypt and established themselves as the Twenty-fifth dynasty. They restored Egypt to its ancient customs and revived the custom of pyramid burials. You can compare the image of Taharqa to see if the race is significantly different from Pami the Libyan. Taharka (the one in profile view with his portrait view on its right) supported the resistance in the Fertile Crescent against Sennacherib of Assyria. He would therefore have been an ally of Hezekiah.

Isaiah 37:9 speaks of the same thing. People read this and they do not realise what is happening, black people helping Jews. He successfully repelled Sennacheribs son, Esarhaddon, in his first attempt to capture Egypt but was defeated by a much larger army in the second attempt. In 701 BC, Hezekiah of Judah, Lule king of Sidon, Sidka, king of Ascalon and the king of Ekron formed an alliance with Egypt against Assyria. So you have Hamitic people (kush) joining with Semitic Jews (like Hezekiah) against Assyrians (other Semitic people). This nonsense about Jews pure white and hating blacks is rubbish. If we accept the description from page 15 of 113 of The Project Gutenberg eBook, Assyria, Its Princes, Priests and People, by A. H. (Archibald Henry) Sayce, then the Assyrians were barbarians who thrived on violence and the area united against them. Sennacherib defeated the rebels and drove the Egyptians from the region. He marched toward Jerusalem, destroying 46 towns and villages in his path. This is described in Isaiah 10 which explains that an angel of the Lord killed 185,000 Assyrian soldiers at Jerusalem after Hezekiah prayed to YHWH. Sennacherib says Judah paid him tribute and he left. These Assyrian falsifiers of history are who then set up vassals in Egypt with Necho I. They (including it seems National Geographic) are now claiming that the ancient Egyptians are who vilified these Cushites, but who were in charge of Egypt at the time? Assyrians. Why did Egypt never do it before? from Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt

They were succeeded by the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, initially a puppet dynasty installed by and vassals of the Assyrians, the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the Achaemenid Empire invaded. The fall of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty also marks the beginning of the Late Period of ancient Egypt.

See also links in the appendix on on the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, Psamtik-I and Necho.

Hezekiah to Josiah

The Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth Dynasties cover the time from Hezekiah to Josiah. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 BC), was started by Psamatic I but the intrigue began with the installation of his father Necho I by the Assyrians. The only image that I have seen of Necho I is from a miniature on Wikipedia. He resembles Psamatic I, on his right, poofy hair and all, but after that the appearance of the pharaohs change. For one thing the poofy hair disappears. It was the last native dynasty of Egypt. Necho I had been one of the kings/governors at Sais who resisted the Nubians. The dynasty consists of: Neko I, Psamtek I, Neko II (who killed Josiah of Judah), Psamtek II, Apries , Amose II and Psamtek III.

Psamtik I, shown to the right of Necho I (the miniature), looks African. Necho II is below him and looks European but Khedebneithirbinet I (his wife) is to his left and leaves no question about her origin. Something unusual happened to produce Necho II. Soon you get to their son Psamtik II (below them on the left) that looks Greek/European/Assyrian. The narrower features could have come from Theban genes but still? I have no image of the mother of Necho II. If you look carefully at the features of the parents they are represented in Psamtik II but the damage was done before to produce Necho II. By the time of Amasis II and Psamtik III (to the right of Psamitik II) the features return to somewhat African. I wonder why the ones that look African have their noses disfigured? Taharka (Tirhakah) had supported the resistance in the Fertile Crescent (which would have included Hezekiah) against King Sennacherib of Assyria but this lot ( specifically Neko II ) killed Josiah his grandson. The story of Senaccherib and Hezekiah is found in 2 Kings 18:17-19:37, and that story ended with Senaccherib being murdered by his sons in 681 BC leaving the throne to Essahardon a younger son. In 673 BC Esarhaddon launched his first military campaign against Egypt. The Egyptian forces under the Kushite Pharaoh Tirhakah sent them packing. In 671 BC Esarhaddon sent a much larger army and captured the capital city of Memphis, ousting Tirhakah. The Bible talks about this Assyrian dynasty that included Shalmaneser V and Sennacherib. It is the puppet pharaohs that were installed by Esarhaddon that lead to the death of Josiah.

It is difficult not to go off track a bit here. Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 BC) seized the Assyrian throne during a civil war and killed the royal family. His policy to discourage revolts against Assyrian rule was forced deportation. This policy lasted for three centuries. He exacted tribute from King Menahem of Israel (2 Kings 15:19) and later defeated Pekah his successor (2 Kings 15:29). Shalmaneser V (his son) succeeded him. Sargon II (722 - 705 BC) seized the throne of the Assyrian Empire in 722 BC, soon before Israel was deported and after the death of Shalmaneser V. Sennacherib (705 - 681 BC), his son, succeeded him, bringing us back to Hezekiah. Sennacherib's son and heir was Essahardon.

Manasseh of Judah began his reign when Sennacherib was king of Assyria. Manasseh was the Jewish king that was so evil that God proclaimed that the Jews would go into captivity for 70 years (II Kings 21:11-16). Manasseh is mentioned in Assyrian records as a loyal vassal of Esarhaddon who succeeded Sennacherib. Esarhaddon died in 669 BC and was succeeded by his son, Ashurbanipal, who also names Manasseh as one of a number of vassals who assisted his campaign against Egypt. In other words, the corrupt actions of Manasseh lead to the untimely death of his son Josiah.

Necho I was of Libyan (African by Herodoctus terminology) descent and governor/king of Sais in 672 BC. When in 671 Esarhaddon ousted Taharka, Necho was among the local rulers installed by the Assyrians as vassals. Taharqas Cushite force reconquered Memphis and Lower Egypt (670 - 669 BC) defeating the Egyptian vassals. Many of the trusted officials Esarhaddon had left in charge became sympathetic to the Egyptian situation. In 669 BC Esarhaddon attempted to march again on Egypt but died before he could recapture Egypt. Ashurbanipal, his son and successor, recaptured Memphis (667) and tried to conquer Upper Egypt controlled by Taharka. In the campaign he discovered that Necho I and other vassals were conspiring against him so he slaughtered some of the population and captured and deported the leaders to Nineveh giving Egypt's upper class racial links to Assyria. For some reason during the next year or two Ashurbanipal restored Necho as governor of Sais (why?) and later installed Necho's son, Psamtik I as ruler of Athribis (why?). If you look at the appearance of Necho I and Psamatic I you see the flatter nose and poofy hair. Why does it look more European after that? The death of Ashurbanipal around 627 BC gave rise to political instability. In 626 BC Nabopolassar (king of a sub state of Assyria called Chaldea) started a different dynasty under the Chaldean Empire.

Modern scholars claim that Chaldea did not exist at the time of Abraham (Ur of the Chaldees?). This implies that the Torah was not copied but re-written during the time of the captivity. Which is to claim that we do not know what else they changed!!! I suggest that God preserved the truth for us even though we may have to swap between the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint at times.

After Taharqa died in 664, his nephew and successor, Tanutamon (Tantamani), led an unsuccessful invasion of Lower Egypt in which Necho I died. Consider this from Necho I's position: the Assyrians have my son so I swear that I hate Nubians and love Assyrians. Assume that my son Psamtik I has even copulated with an Assyrian showing our preference. Even when my country gets liberated we now have to stick with Assyrians because the Egyptian people around us do not trust us. The distrust is so intense that my son has to to hire mercenaries from Greece to protect him from his own people. My grandson (Necho II, maybe half or three-quarters Assyrian), because of his upbringing associates closely with Assyrians, and since I die defending Assyrians interest against Nubians he trashes everything to do with Nubians that he could find. That type of violence was Assyrian not African and not Mesopotamian in general. We hear of the magnanimity of the black pharaohs of the 25 dynasty who restored Egypt and did not slaughter their prisoners. We do not hear the same about Assyria. Necho II's grandfather Necho I, fought on the side of Taharka, his mother is an obvious black woman. Why trash the Nubians? Where did he learn that from?

Once back in Egypt Psamtik I (ruled 664 - 610 BC, son of Necho I) was able to reject vassal status to Assyria. He negotiated an alliance with Gyges, the king of Lydia in Asia Minor in order to subdue the other vassals in Egypt (658 - 651) and eventually overcome Assyrian control, but apparently not allegiance. To conquer the threat of Kush he negotiated the adoption of his daughter Nitocris by the priestess of the Theban god Amon, which gave him access to the considerable wealth of the temples to build garrisons, but Thebes itself remained under the Kushites. His religion and daughter was tied to the Kushites. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/biography/Psamtik-I, to counteract the power of the resident military class (his own people), Psamtik I organized a Greek mercenary corps as part of his army. Why could he not trust his own Egyptian people? Psamatic II, his grandson and son of Necho II (who killed Josiah) is also the one that invaded Kush and trashed all Nubian relics he could find in Egypt. Psamtik I, also remained loyal to Assyrians against his Semitic neighbours and sent reinforcements to the Assyrians in 614. But did he hate black people? Below Psamatic I is Khedebneithirbinet I, who married his son Necho II on her right. Does this look like a situation where Egyptians hate black people? What was his concept of beauty? By the time of pharaoh Psamatic III they would have freed themselves of Assyrians and endured during the Chaldeans but the Persians under Cambyses defeated Psamatic III.

Twenty-seventh Dynasty

The Twenty-seventh Dynasty (525 - 404 BC) further changes the complexion of Egypt. There is an image of Cyrus on the left and Darius on the right. They are both from the same Empire but they do not have exactly the same facial characteristics. One leans to the Caucasian side and the other leans to the Negro side. I say this just to make the point that they are not exactly the same race but they are the same people. Over and over in history God has shown that the people of one society can live as equals even though they ar of a different complexion or have diversity in other ways. It was actually the Meda-Persian Empire and Darius was a Mede while Cyrus was a Persian. Persians and Medes are not Arabs. Arabs trace their ancestry through Ishmael. The Persian rulers of Egypt adopted the traditional title of pharaoh but they ruled as foreigners not as Egyptians. The Persian king Cambyses II (son of Cyrus the Great) implemented his fathers plan and conquered Egypt in 525 BC. He received assistance from Polycrates of Samos, a Greek ally of Egypt and from the Arabs, who provided water for his army to cross the Sinai Desert. The pharaohs were now Persians and friends of the Arabs: Cambyses, Darius I, Xerxes, Artaxerxes I, Darius I and Artaxerxes II. Encyclopaedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/Persian says:

The name Persia derives from Parsa, the name of the Indo-European nomadic people who migrated into southern Iran—to an area then called Persis—about 1000 bce. The first written reference to the Parsa occurs in the annals of Shalmaneser II, an Assyrian king, who reigned in the 9th century bce. As the Parsa expanded their sphere of political influence, particularly under the Achaemenian dynasty (559–330 bce), the entire Iranian plateau became known to outsiders (such as the ancient Greeks) as Persia; its various peoples were designated (collectively) the Persians. Subsequent rulers—including Alexander the Great, who conquered Persia in 330 bce, and the local Sāsānian dynasty (ruled 226–641 ce)—fostered cultural consolidation.

Dynasties 28, 29 and 30

All of the Persian Empire (Egypt included) began to be mixed up under Meda-Persian rule because they were very liberal rulers. By this time the Egyptian elite had formed ties with the Greeks as mercenaries and personal guards. After the Greek victory at Marathon in 490 BC, the Egyptians revolted against the Persians (in 484 and again in 460 BC) with the help of the Athenians, but with no success. Marathon is famous for Pheidippides, who the story says, dropped dead after ruining from Marathon to Athens to bring word of the victory, hence marathon runner. The revolt in 404 BC. succeeded and local Egyptian Pharaohs established Dynasties 28, 29 and 30. Dynasty 28 was only Amyrtacus (404 - 399 BC). Dynasty 29 (399 - 380 BC) was Nepherites I, Hakor and Nepherites II. Psamtik I had started the Greek mercenary corps now these played a major role in defeating several attacks by the Persians. Dynasty 30 (380 - 343 BC) was Nectanebo I, Takos and Nectanebo II who ruled from 360 to 342 BC. Nectanebo II was the last native ruler of ancient Egypt, as well as the third and last pharaoh of the Thirtieth Dynasty. These made alliances with Sparta and Athens and other Greek cities to keep out the Persians but the Egyptian pharaohs could not keep up the fighting and after sixty-three years, the Persians reconquered Egypt in 341 BC. and established the Thirty First Dynasty: Artaxerxes III, Arses and Darius III (343 - 332 BC). Nine years later, in 332 BC, Alexander the Great defeated Egypt as part of his conquest of the Persian Empire, giving rise to the final dynasty, the Ptolemaic Period (305 - 30 BC) which included the famous Cleopatra VII (51-30 BC), she does not represent true Egyptian characteristics. From the Twenty-Sixth dynasty on the people of Egypt would have undergone considerable mixing with Greece, Assyria, Arabia, Persia and others producing a people that are now very different genetically than the original Egyptians. By the time that Alexander laid the foundation for the first European city in Egypt, Alexandria, Greek would have been a familiar part of Egypt. The Libyans too have also gone through considerable change and Persia (Iran) was a new state formed by a mixed set of people. Then the Romans followed by the Muslim Arabs came and introduced further foreign genes, culture and religion that would have been dominant when they each were the incumbent power. Some people claim that America today is like Egypt where the original occupants have been suppressed by newcomers. I see the similarity although America is an extreme case.

There are many arguments against what seems obvious to me. If you say that Egyptians painted themselves black the retort is that the complexion of the men is typically dark red, that of the women yellow apparently because women spent less time in the sun [?]. You can check this short youtube video on king Tut https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FvZ3E2buQfA. You can check the National Geographic documentary at https://face2faceafrica.com/article/the-black-pharaohs-from-the-kingdom-of-kush-who-ruled-over-egypt-for-centuries or on Youtube the 25th dynasty of black pharoahs and see how it grudgingly gives credit to black people. I think that this video by Zakerias Rowland-Jones is somewhat more objective https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iN3690N6UTY. Even today the Cushite legacy in Egypt is denied. Cushites were very black it seems but ruled Egypt for centuries. The destruction of the relics of the pharaohs of dynasty 25 by Psamatek II (see https://www.britannica.com/biography/Psamtik-II) explains why we have not got clear records of black dominance in Egypt. There is this question of how black is black? I actually think that colour has more to do with geography than ancestry. I believe that Noah had the ability to quickly change colour in response to the amount of radiation. Your body is designed to make the vitamin D it needs when your bare skin is exposed to sunlight. The more sunlight the more vitamin D. The part of the sun's rays that is important is ultraviolet B which is part of the spectrum that has a shorter wavelength than visible light. Melanin (the pigment that gives black skin its colour) reduces the skin's ability to make vitamin D when exposed to sunlight. Black people in cold climates can become deficient in vitamin D and white people in hot climates can become sunburnt. We have lost the ability to regulate the vitamin D that we need except for minor variations in climate. As the nations dispersed the ones that moved closer to the equator became darker and when we lost the ability to alter our colour we remained the colour that we had. It is not a sensible basis for discrimination.

I could not find any solid evidence that homosexuality was a part of normal Egyptian life. The story of Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep is used by people of that persuasion to claim that they were homosexuals, however the hieroglyphics that I saw appear to be wrestlers as it does to most historians. There is also an attempt to stretch the intercourse in the temple, which had to do with rituals of fertility between men and women (temple prostitutes) to include homosexuality but the evidence was spurious in my opinion. There is a story of homosexuality among the gods Osiris and Set but it is not a repeated practice and is not seen in a positive light by any stretch of the imagination. Homosexuality is more associated with Greek culture which we will deal with later.

I find that the pharaohs (the princes) and the priests and the prophets (the advocates of the pharaoh system) have continued to perform the functions that I described at the beginning in Egyptian society, leading to concentration of wealth in the hands of the few and separation from the true God and saviour. The priesthood served the king. The viser was the chief adviser to the king and at times was also the High Priest. The scribes (a significant representation of the prophets) and the soldiers were below both the princes (nobles) and the priests. The illustrative pyramid here is from the website History on the Net and its article Egyptian Social Classes and Society: How Exactly Did It Work?, https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-egyptians-society where you can go for further details. The Pharaoh was seen as god on earth. The religion describes a conflict between Seth and Osiris. This dichotomy preserves the Bible account with relation to Cain and Seth. According to wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(deity) @2018-12-24

Set /sɛt/ or Seth /sɛθ/ (Egyptian: stẖ; also transliterated Setesh, Sutekh, Setekh, or Suty) is a god of chaos, the desert, storms, disorder, violence, and foreigners in ancient Egyptian religion. In Ancient Greek, the god's name is given as Sēth (Σήθ). Set had a positive role where he accompanies Ra on his solar boat to repel Apep, the serpent of Chaos. Set had a vital role as a reconciled combatant. He was lord of the red (desert) land where he was the balance to Horus' role as lord of the black (soil) land.

I think that appreciating these elements of Egyptian culture and genealogy are important to putting the Bible in context and understanding the parallels in modern society.

Acknowledgements

on the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, Psamtik-I and Necho:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necho_I
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Psamtik-I
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Necho-I

Other acknowledgements for Egypt include:

https://quatr.us/egypt/persians-rule-egypt.htm  
http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Egypt_3aaa.htm  
https://www.ask-aladdin.com/egypt-pharaohs/merenre-i/